Aleksandra Kolaković

The power of the "public word" had a significant impact during the Great War (1914-1918). In order to emphasize Serbian issue to the European public, Serbian intellectuals (Milenko Vesnić, Grgur Jakšić, Jovan Žujović, Mileta Novaković etc.) built profound ties with the group of French intellectuals (Victor Bérard, Auguste Gauvain, Émile Haumant, Ernest Denis, Charles Loiseau etc). The result of their common work were articles, books, public speeches, organization of the Serbian day in French schools and preparation of humanitarian aid to Serbs in 1915. This paper is based on the research of the creative work of French and Serbian intellectuals, and it aims to explore the power of the "public word", as well as, the influence and significance of scholars and publicists in 1915. The paper sheds light on detection of mutual interests of French and Serbian intellectuals and contribution of French intellectuals to the actualization of Serbian issues. Special attention will also be devoted to the role of intellectual cooperation in affirmation of interests of small nations, like the one that Serbs had at the time of the greatest imperial conflict.

Kolaković Aleksandra, "Intellectuals in the Great War: French-Serbian Cooperation", in: Antonello Biagini, Giovanna Motta (ed.), The First World War Analysis and Interpretation, Volume 2, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Cambridge 2015, 133–144. ISBN: 978–1–4438–8531–7.

• Kolaković Aleksandra, "French Intellectuals on the Autro-Hungarian Interest in the Balkans 1894–1914", in: Matei Gheboianu, Cosmin Ionita (ed.), Balkan Entanglements – Peace of Bucharest, Universitatii din Bucuresti, Bucharest 2016, 13–29. ISBN: 9–786061–607914.

Kolaković Aleksandra, Trailović Dragan, "Srpska golgota: istorija i kultura sećanja" ["Serbian Golgotha: history and culture of memory"], Tematski zbornik međunarodnog značaja Vek srpske golgote (1915–2015), III – Društvene nauke, Kosovska Mitrovica 2016, 263–281. ISBN 978–86–6349–067–3 (ISBN 978–86–6349–068–0

The expansion of French culture in Serbia resulted in the emergence of associations specializing in teaching and training of the French language and dissemination of French culture. Since the mid-19 th century, the local bearers of this culture were Serbs educated in France. Between the end of the 19 th century, when the first initiative for the establishment of a society of this kind was launched, and the Great War (1914–1918), there were several associations whose members were mostly prominent Serbs and representatives of France in Serbia. Based on historical sources and literature, the paper analyses various aspects of the establishment and operation of Franco-Serbian cultural associations and their influence on Serbian culture through the paradigms of the relationship between France and Serbia, international relations, the emergence and achievements of the French cultural diplomacy. Rezumat Expansiunea culturii franceze în Serbia a rezultat în emergența asociațiilor specializate în predare și instruire limbajului francez precum și diseminării culturii franceze. Încă de la mijlocul secolului al XIX-lea, purtătorii acestei culturi au fost sârbii educați în Franța. Pe la sfârșitul secolului al XIX-lea, când prima inițiativă pentru stabilirea societății de acest fel a fost lansată, și Marele Război (1914–1918), au fost câteva asociații ai căror membrii au fost în predominanță sârbi și reprezentanți ai Franței în Serbia. În baza surselor istorice și a literaturii, lucrarea analizează aspecte variate ale stabilirii și operării asociațiilor culturale franco-sârbe și influența lor asupra culturii sârbești prin paradigme ale relației dintre Franța și Serbia, relațiile internaționale, emergența și realizările diplomației culturale franceze.

"– Road to Great War – Serbian Intellectuals and Austro-Hungarian Policy in the Balkans (1894–1914)", Serbian Political Thought, № 1 (2014), 67–89. ISSN: 1450–5460.
Abstract
The generation of Serbian Intellectuals who were active in the political and public life of Serbia at the turn of 19th and 20th century were considering problems of maintaining the attained independence of Serbia, a search for reliable support in foreign policy, integration of the nation and further economic, social, and cultural development. In the Europe characterized with complex relationships between the great powers, ambitious imperialist plans, instability and conflicts which were leading to the Great War (1914–1918), the Serbian intelligentsia, prevailingly educated in European university centers, was striving to find ways of accomplishing the idea of liberation and unification. The change of orientation in Serbian foreign policy, which began in the last decade of 19th century and was definitely confirmed with the raise of the Karadjordjević Dynasty to the Serbian throne (1903), was a manifestation of the need of Serbian politicians and intellectuals to facilitate liberation from economic dependence, development of the state and the national idea, by edging away from the reliance on Austria-Hungary. From the Congress of Berlin (1878), via the Customs War (1906–1911), the Annexation Crisis (1908) and the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), the interest of Serbian intellectuals in the policy of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans was growing and intermingling with issues of the overall further development of Serbia. The aim of this paper is to shed a light onto the origins and development of the interest and the thinking of Serbian intellectuals regarding the policy and interests of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans in the period which immediately preceded World War I. The attitudes and thoughts of Serbian intellectuals which were published in periodicals (the Serbian Literary Gazette /Srpski književni glasnik/ and the Work /Delo/), press, brochures and books, are viewed in the context of Austro-Hungarian imperial thrust into the Balkans, which started with the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and was definitely confirmed with the act of annexation and war plans. The efforts of Austria-Hungary to control the entire Balkans and occupy its central areas have also been studied in light of the confrontation between the two blocs of European powers, perception of the place of the Serbs and Serbia in the complicated international relations of the time, as well as in light of development of the Yugoslav idea, which was present among Serbian intellectuals prior to World War I.
Keywords: Serbian intellectuals, Serbia, Austria-Hungary, the Balkans, the late 19th and early 20th century, the Great War (1914–1918).

"Srbija u Velikom ratu 1914 – 1918 [Serbia in the Great War 1914–1918], Belgrade, Srpska književna zadruga, Beogradski forum za svet ravnopravnih, special editions, Belgrade 2014, 300p.", Serbian Political Thought, No. 1 (2014), 105–114.  ISSN: 1450–5460.

"Mlada Bosna – Prikaz knjige: Radoslav Gaćinović, Mlada Bosna, Beograd: Medija centar Odbrana, Biblioteka Vojna knjiga, knjiga br. 1856, 2014, 595 str" ["Young Bosnia – Book review: Radoslav Gaćinović, Mlada Bosna, Beograd: Medija centar Odbrana, Biblioteka Vojna knjiga, knjiga br. 1856, 2014, 595 str"], Politička revija, br. 3 (2015), 235–240.

National history, as an element of the national identity is a foundation for the construction of the present and future of one society, one nation or one state. History textbooks, as a primary and starting source for education of the young people and acquirement of the first historical knowledge, play a significant role in building of the national identity. Since 2000 the number of the history textbooks for primary schools in Serbia, have been increased and they have allowed different perceptions of the national history by their authors, in spite of the common program. This situation imposes an important issue: analysis of characteristics, similarities and differences between history textbooks by different authors, relations between the general and national history, as well as, their influences in creation of the national identity. One of the proclaimed strategies of the Ministry of Education and Science has been affirmation of the national identity since 2010. It inevitably opens up an important issue of the analysis of history textbooks and their relations to national history.
Keywords: national history, national identity, history textbooks, primary school, Serbia.

This paper examines the role that the classical heritage, tangible and intangible, played in the formation of the European identity in Serbia during the nineteenth and early twentieth century. During this period, in European countries the presence of elements of the ancient heritage was emphasized as a proof of affiliation to the civilized European cultural space. Members of the Serbian intellectual elite, educated in European university centers, adopted and brought to the Serbian society the view that the achievements of ancient heritage represent the pinnacle of civilization. These intellectuals have, as well, seen the classical languages and classical spiritual and material heritage, as a link that could bring Serbia closer to the generally accepted standards of European cultural and scientific trends, and help incorporate Serbia into a wider European framework. Therefore, they were persistent in their dedication to approach the classical heritage to the Serbian public. This paper aims to explore the results of their endeavors, and to compare their achievements with contemporary efforts to build a common European cultural identity.
Keywords: ancient heritage, intellectuals, identity, Serbia, Europe.

French intellectuals and the Balkan Wars 1912-1913

At the end of 19th and beginning of 20th Century political and economic interests of Great Powers, alongside with consolidation of their mutual conflicts are more concentrated to the Balkans. French intellectuals noticed changes in international relations and since the Franco-Russia Alliance (1893) dedicated special attention to the end of Ottoman ruling in all European estates and complicated relations between Balkan nations. Balkan Wars were the opportunity for French intellectuals to express their knowledge on the Balkans. Intellectual work and creativity of Luis Léger, Victor Bérard, André Chéradame, Emile Haumant, Ernest Denis, Henri Barby, René Pinon, Alain de Penennrun and other intellectuals gave a significant contribution of exploration of the Balkan Wars 1912-1913. Interests of the French State embodied in preventing German invasion to the East that created buffer consisting of the Balkan nations, were postulates for the texts of French scholars and publicists. Mentioned ideas existed among French intellectuals even before 1912, but they have become more vivid during ongoing war becoming part of French diplomatic plans. Serb-Bulgarian War outbreak contributed in bringing out new perspectives to the Balkan circumstances which was noticeable in the texts of French intellectuals. During wartime a lot of French intellectuals were stationed at the Balkans: scholars, war reports and ex - officers, who were alerting French public that important events are taking place at the Balkans. French newspapers and magazines: L’Illustration, Revue des Deux Mondes, Le Revue de Paris and other were reporting daily from Balkan battlefields. Topics of their texts were military operations on the Balkan soil, military and political potential of Balkan allies, and final defeat of Turkey and creation of the new political regional map. Balkan Wars arouse with French intellectuals to observe characteristics of Balkan societies and the level of emancipation. Differences between Serbs and Bulgarians, as well as creation of the new state on the Balkans – Albania, were new topics for the French intellectuals. Interest of French intellectuals for the Balkans in the context of complicated international relations influenced creation of image of the Balkans and Balkan nations in the French and European public. Concurrently, pointing potential of the Balkan states in possible world armed conflict texts of the French intellectuals affected forming of official positions of the French Government.
Key words: French intellectuals, Balkan Wars 1912-1913, the Balkans, France, Serbia.

Influence of adopting of the French language to the Serbian culture
(1839-1914)

The teaching of the French language in Serbia, which started at the Lyceum since 1839 as a base for accepting of the French influence in the Serbian culture, played a significant role in shaping of its distinctive and authentic expression. Generations of the French lecturers at the Great School (Velika škola; later University), enabled direct connection between the Serbs and French literature. Belgrade lectors of the French language Charles Arène (1813-1890), Alphonse-Désiré Magrou and Gaston Gravier (1886-1915; permanent lector since 1909), contributed to the expansion of the French language and culture in Serbia. Their work at the Belgrade University was a result of the cooperation and support of the French and Serbian governments. Société littéraire Franco-serbe, founded in May 1904, in order to gather francophone Serbs and propagate the French language and literature. In the beginning of the 20th century Alliance française extended a number of free courses in Serbia. The French cultural reflection in Serbia was supported by political and economic factors. On the other hand, the Serbs, educated in France, had the most significant influence in accepting of the French culture. Bogdan Popović and his students Jovan Skerlić and Uros Petrović contributed to accepting of the French cultural model in Serbia. Gradually, the Serbian knowledge on the French language and culture, as well as on the French public life, influenced the French cultural model to become a useful link between Serbia and France.
Key words: French language, French culture, influence, Serbs, Serbian culture, 19th and 20th century.

"Historical Science and historical education, in addition to a narrative explanation of events, phenomena and processes, are relying on visual methods of presentation. The historical maps, pictures and charts are an integral part of modern history textbooks and monographs.  While the development of printing technology, as well as other computer enabled presentation, have significantly advanced visual representations of a historical content in a classroom, at the same time they are increasingly becoming insufficient in attempting to engage students. Therefore, the teaching of history must adapt and embrace. technological advances in the field of information and communication technologies that enable innovative ways to mediate knowledge. Among them, Augmented Reality (AR) becomes increasingly a field of interest offering various possibilities for the presentation of historical content in an interesting, attractive and innovative way. Augmented reality (AR) refers to the addition of a computer-assisted contextual layer of information over the real world, creating a reality that is enhanced or augmented. The technology works by overlaying seemingly-real digital experiences (virtual interactive 3D images, words, videos, sounds)  are becoming on  person’s local environment -classroom. The 2010 Horizon Report, a joint report by The New Media Consortium and Educause, predicts that augmented reality will be widespread in education within four to five years. Being fully adjusted to the generation that grew up with computers and mobile phones, Augmented Reality by its nature enables an active approach to learning, making a passive spectator a part of experience. AR allows for the observation and understanding of content from different perspectives and positive impact on motivation, The aim of this paper is to, through an interdisciplinary approach, present the potential impact on and use of various aspects of AR on historical education

Keywords: Augmented Reality, history, presentations, teaching history, innovation, education
"

Key words: Culture of the Slavic peoples, Serbs, French intellectuals, the Balkans, the end of 19th and beginning of 20th centuries.

The Department of Slavic Studies at the Collège de France, established since 1844, played a significant role in introducing of the culture of the Slavic peoples to Europe and its public. Traditions and culture of the whole Slavic peoples became an object of special attention and research of French scholars, in accordance with their new role in international relations in the end of 19th and in the beginning of 20th centuries. Intellectual work and creativity of Luis Léger (1843-1923), Victor Bérard (1864-1931), Charles Loiseu (1861-1945), André Chéradame (1871-1948), Emile Haumant (1858-1942), Ernest Denis (1849-1921) and other intellectuals gave a significant contribution of exploration of the “Slavic world” to Western public. At the same time, their work influenced creation of attitudes of the French diplomats and politicians about the Slavic peoples of Europe. French intellectuals paid special attention on the Slavic peoples in Austria-Hungary, but also on the Slavic peoples in the Balkans. Interests for the Slavic civilization and culture were especially present in the public life during the political crisis in the Balkans and strengthening of the German economic and military power in the beginning of 20th century. Regarding this, intellectual issue by these persons influenced creation of the new French foreign policy. The scholar interests of French intellectuals for the Serbs and their culture (as a part of global Slavic research) became an important issue in the beginning of 20th century. A few of them visited Serbia and wrote papers dedicated to the Serbs. This paper focuses on the main reasons of interests of the French intellectuals for the Serbs and other Slavic peoples. This paper also discusses about the depth of influence of the French intellectuals upon on individuals, politicians and statesmen on the eve of the World War One.

Corfu – Witness of Serbian History

Key words: Corfu, Serbs, Serbia, The First World War, history, cultural heritage

During the First World War, the Corfu Island (Κέρκυρα), served as a island hospital and quarantine for the sick Serbian soldiers following the epic retreat of the Serbian army and part of the civilian population through Montenegro and Albania in 1915 following the Austro-German-Bulgarian invasion of Serbia. While the main camps of the recuperating army were on the Corfu itself (a contingent was sent to Bizerte as well, and many of the civilian refugees were accepted by France), the sick and near-dying, mostly soldiers were treated on Vido to prevent epidemics. In spite of Allied material help, the conditions of both the improvised medical facilities and many of the patients on the island resulted in high fatality rate. Due to small area of the island and it's rocky soil it soon became a necessity to bury the dead in the sea (by binding rocks to the corpses to prevent flotation). More than 5000 people were buried at sea near the island of Vido. A monument of thanks to the Greek Nation has been erected at Vido by the grateful Serbs in 1930s. The waters around Vido island are known by the Serbian people as the Ode to a Blue Sea Tomb (in Serbian, Plava Grobnica), after a poem written by Milutin Bojić. Serbian government has been stationed at the "Bella Venice" in Corfu, National Theatre of Corfu was conceded as the Serbian Parliament session and the Church of  St. Archangel, Holy Trinity and St. Nicholas temporarily handed over to Serbs in use for religious purposes. In Corfu were maintained daily sports competitions and cultural events such as theatrical performances and concerts with the participation Serbian athletes and performers. Thanks to modern printing machines, which have provided by French, Srpske novine started coming out. Many Serbs have decided to settle permanently on the island, and made  a large number of mixed marriages. The three daughters of hotel owners, "Bella Venice", Ioannis Gazis, were married to Serbs. The friendly relations between the Serbian and the Greek people, which is developed in this period is evidenced by the "Serbian House" which still exists today in Corfu in a museum "Serbs on Corfu 1916-1918" and the Honorary Consulate of the Republic of Serbia.The Serbian Museum of Corfu  rare exhibits about the Serbian soldiers' tragic fate during the First World War. The remnants of the Serbian Army of about 150,000 soldiers together with their government in exile, found refuge and shelter in Corfu, following the collapse of the Serbian Front as a result of the Austro-Hungarian attack of the 6 October 1915. Exhibits include photographs from the three years stay of the Serbians in Corfu, together with other exhibits such as uniforms, arms and ammunition of the Serbian army, Serbian regimental flags, religious artifacts, surgical tools and other decorations of the Kingdom of Serbia. Thus, Corfu became a witness of Serbian history and cultural heritage which should be cherished.

SERBIAN SPIRITUAL LINKS WITH FRANCE
CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE
OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
During the nineteenth century spiritual, cultural, economic and political
ties, between France and Serbia were constructed. Those ties experienced
its climax at the beginning of First World War 1914th year. Contacts
between the French and the Serbs in this period, and official contacts of two states, left a rich cultural and historical heritage, witch has often been subject
of numerous scholar papers. But, there are still many questions and
they are still waiting for answers. Contacts, links and cooperation between
French and Serbian intellectuals and members of the Serbian elite, educated
in France, left a rich cultural and historical heritage. The French intellectuals
such as Saint-Rene Taillandier, Joseph Reinach, Thompson Gaston,
Auguste Dozon, Louis Leger, Albert Malet, Berar Victor Berard, Charles
Loiseu, Andre Cheradamen, Auguste Gauvain, Emile Haumant and Ernest
Denis, wrote and cooperated with significant members of the Serbian elite:
Jevrema Grujic, Milovan Jankovic, Elijah Garašanina, Stojan Boskovic,
Jovan Cvijića, Milutin Garašanina, Stojan Novakovic, Mihajla Petrović,
Jovana Žujovića, Bogdan Popovic and Milovan Milovanovic. The common
interests, contacts and connections formed the Serbian spiritual links with
France. The idea of the eternal friendship between two nations transmitted
through generations of Serbs to the beginning of the twenty-first
century.

RELATIONS OF THE SERBIAN ELITE GATHERED AROUND THE
DELO JOURNAL AND THE THE SERBIAN LITERARY HERALD TO
THE NATIONAL IDENTITY AND EUROPE

Between the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century
twentieth, the Serbian elite, educated mostly in the western university
centers, sought to modernize Serbian society and the state in the tradition
of european models. Upon return to the homeland, these people started
taking over important positions within the state administration and school
departments. They also formed various associations and started magazines,
through which they transferred the culture of the environment in which
they formed their identity. Literary journals and newspapers, as well as periodicals, contributed to the evolution and enrichment of literary expression,
and stimulated and promoted literary life and creativity. The press
reflected spiritual trends in society. A circle of individuals close to the
Radical Party launched the Delo [the Delo Journal] and Srpski književni glasnik
[The Serbian Literary Herald]. Founders and associates in the magazine
were: Svetislav Simić, Milovan Milovanović, Bogdan Popović, Jovan Skerlić
and other former European scholars who had a profound influence on the
contents of the magazine as well as on the shaping of new ideological
trends in the Serbian society. They were the driving force behind new cultural
and conceptual trends in the Serbian environment. The issue of
national identity, review of the position of Serbs and Serbia in the family of
european nations and states were markedly dominant theme. As advocates
of Serbian politics and culture and with good selection of associates whose
spiritual and intellectual grasps were in accordance with standards of modern
European civilization, they introduced european spirit to the serbian
society.

Dokumenti o spoljnoj politici Kraljevine Srbije 1903-1914
Knjiga II za 1906. i 1907. godinu, Beograd 2004,2006.
(Documents on the Foreign Policy of the Kingdom of Serbia 1903 - 1914 Book II for the year’s 1906 and 1907, Belgrade 2004 and 2006.)


The Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, more specifically the Department of Historical Sciences and the Committee of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts for Compiling and Publishing Material on the Foreign Policy of Serbia 1903-1914, have started the process of systematic compiling from 1972. and from 1980, publishing materials which have diplomatic – political significance on the foreign policy of the Kingdom of Serbia 1903-1914. This project has demanded systematic and hard work on collecting and selection of the documents, and furthermore, we have to keep in mind that one part of the documents of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Serbia was seized in both Worlds Wars. Apart from the correspondence between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Serbia and its consular offices abroad during the period 1903-1914, the documents were used from other departments and Ministries, using their foreign political character as the sole criteria for selection. Documents on the Foreign Policy of the Kingdom of Serbia in the period 1903 – 1914 represent a significant contribution to the historical science, because this is the first time that all significant Serbian documents which are explaining foreign policy of Serbia towards other states of the Balkans, Europe and world, in whole and in authentic shape, will be published in one place.

Book VII, first to be published, contained 1447 documents created in 1914. Majority of the documents in this book follow the relations between Serbia and Austro Hungarian Empire, directly or through some major issues for both countries, such as the so called Eastern Railway. Another group of documents is dedicated either to the relations between the Balkan states, or following the peace negotiations between Serbia and Turkey. Book VI contains 1770 documents of the archive material were created in 1913, which are testifying of the political consequences and implications of the First Balkan War, led in 1912. Almost all documents are following the Serbian-Bulgarian dispute over Macedonia, the course of the Second Balkan War, Peace Conference in London and Bucurest, as well as the issues over the border lines of Serbia and it neighboring states. Book V covers the documents (2017 of them) created in 1912. Materials from Political Department or Political – Educational Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Serbia and its consular offices abroad, follow the relations of Serbia with other major powers, turbulent events in European Turkey in the spring and summer of 1912., as well as the efforts on creating the Balkan Alliance and the first sitting of the peace and ambassadors Conference in London. Documents depicting foreign policy of Serbia created during 1903 and 1904 were published in the book I. Large group of the documents originate from the correspondence of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Serbia with its consular offices, depicting the standing point of Serbia towards other major powers, especially in relevance with so called rebels question and their reformist actions in Turkey, and describing the relations of Serbia towards Turkey when discussing guerilla-cetnik actions in Old Serbia and Macedonia. Also, a larger portion of the book II was also published, except Vol 4 for July – December 1907 (will be published by the end of 2007) and the Appendix 1 for 1903 – 1905, which will be published in 2008. So far, 16 Issues have been published in 20 volumes, and it is expected that the entire edition Documents on the Foreign Policy of the Kingdom of Serbia in the period 1903 – 1914 will be completed. In the final stage of preparation is the book I, Vol 3 for the year 1905 (editor Andrija Radenic), as well as book III, Vol 1, 2, 3 and 4 for the years 1908 – 1909 (editor Mihailo Vojvodic). There was a small standstill while publishing book IV, Vol 1 and 2 for the year 1910 (editor Kliment Dzambazovski) due to the death of the editor. Currently, book IV, Vol 1, 2, 3 and 4 for the year 1911 (editors Ljiljana Aleksic – Pejkovic and Klimend Dzambazovski) is being published.

Over the last two years, an immense effort has been made in order to publish book II, which will include all the documents created in 1906 and 1907. The editors of this collection of scientific works are: Ljiljana Aleksic-Pejkovic, PhD researcher (retired) The Institut of History Belgrade and Zivota Anic,PhD former director of the Diplomatic Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Materials used for preparation of the issues were found in the Archives of Serbia, the Archives of Yugoslavia, the Archive of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts and the Archives of the Yugoslav Army. The documents from the Archives of Serbia, record groups of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Serbia (MID): Political Department or Political – Educational Department, Highly Classified Archive, as well as the Archive of diplomatic and consular offices abroad, accounting for more than 80 percent of all included documents. Apart from these sources, the documents were used from other departments of the record groups of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Serbia: Department of Politics and Commerce, Chairmanship of Government, personal records of Mr. Milovan Milovanovic and Mr. Jovan Jovanovic. These documents were updated by the documents of the Archive of Yugoslavia. Especially important were the personal records of Mr. Jovan Jovanovic Pizon, which contain the Archives of London Embassy for the year 1907. Apart from the official documents, the records keep a set of remarkable personal letters exchanged with numerous colleagues from diplomatic offices. From the Archives of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts the editors used the legacy documents of Mihailo Ristic, who was a consul residing in Skopje, and of Mihailo Rakic, who was a vice consul in Skopje and Pristina, . The fact stays, which was pointed out by the editors, that the military archive for the year 1907 does not exist, and that there are no records in the Archive of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts , the editors were unable to examine the personal records of Jovan Jovanovic Pizon which are kept in Skopje, as well as the record groups of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Montenegro. However, this fact did not affect the integrity of the compiling book II in any way.


The technical editing of the documents such as: the creation of the main title, embedding the numbers and dates of the documents, engravings at the back of the documents, as well as the signatures, were made in accordance with the Rules and Regulations of the SASU used for publishing documents on foreign policy. All the transcripts and concepts of the official reports are marked in the upper left corner, while the necessary clarifications and explanations, as well as the signatures (numerations) of the original documents previously published to which the main act is referring, were given in the footnotes bellow the text. The text in the documents is not altered in any way, with the exception of some minor technical interventions made by the authors, removing the obvious spelling mistakes or adding certain missing words, which were inserted in square brackets. Each issue of the second book contains, apart from the foreword of the compilers, a list of acronyms, a list of documents, the documents themselves, the schedule of documents sorted by its content, word index, historical terms and institutions, registrar of personal names, as well as the registrar of geographical names, the names of countries and nations. At the beginning of each book there is a list of documents, with all the necessary information, including a brief index. The documents are sorted chronologically, by the date of creation in accordance with the new and the old calendar.


Book 2 of the Documents Depicting the Foreign Policy of the Kingdom of Serbia in the Period 1903 – 1914 contains a selection of documents, related to the events that took place in 1906 and 1907. Vol 1 and 2 present documents related to the foreign policy of Serbia, which are dated during the year 1906, while the other issues are related to the documents originated from 1907. Vol 1, apart from the characteristics mentioned above, contain the following appendices: Nasilja nad Srbima u Bitoljskom i Solunskom vilajetu, Skopskom sandžaku i reonu Prištinskog konzulata (Violence Against Serbs in the Bitola and Thessalonica Vilaet, in Skopje, Sandzak and in the area under the Authority of the Pristina Consulate), Izdaci Kraljevine Srbije za poverljive prosvetno-političke poslove u Turskoj za 1906. godinu (Expenses of the Kingdom of Serbia for Classified Educational-Political Affairs in Turkey for the year 1906), and Raspored učitelja u Raško prizrenskoj eparhiji 1905-1906. godin (The Assignment of Teachers in the Raska -Prizren Eparchy in the period 1905-1906). Vol 1 contains 701 documents created in the period 1/14. January – 30. June / 13. July 1906, while Vol 2 contains 544 documents created in the period 1/14. July - 31 December 1906 / 13. January 1907. Vol 3 contains 743 documents created in the period 1/14. January – 30. June / 13. July 1907, while Vol 4, which will come out by the end of 2007, contains 570 documents created between 1/14. January – 31. December 1907/13. January 1908. It is important to emphasize that Book 2, exhibits in the appendix documents related to the Serbian Organisation for the Defense of the Interest of the Serbian Nation in the Old Serbia and Macedonia (Srpska organizacija za odbranu interesa srpskog naroda u Staroj Srbiji i Maćedoniji). Some of them were also of vital interest to the neighbouring countries of Serbia, while others were important for Serbia alone. However, both types of documents reflected its foreign-political moves. The mentioned years were the milestone years not only for Serbia but for the international political scene as well for the ongoing process of the regrouping of the major European powers into rival blocks. This was made clear at the Conference in Algersiras in 1906, where these powers played a role in terminating the First Moroccan Crisis, and in 1907, by signing the Treaty between Russia and Great Britain, the Atanta block was formed. In the same period, there were many significant events which took place in the Balkans, which were partly connected with the events in Europe, and partly with the events in the Balkans and the nations that were living there. Evidently, the editors of the Book 2 have tried, by the selection of the documents presented, to depict or to point out the course of the foreign-political relationships of Serbia, not only with the other Balkan countries, but with the major European countries as well.

The main characteristic of the international position of Serbia at the beginning of the 20th century is its being surrounded by hostile forces. In 1906 Serbia was engaged in the so called “Customs War” with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and during 1907, one can monitor and track efforts made by Serbia to find and explore new markets for Serbian products. In order to release itself from the economical pressure opposed by its neighbour Austro-Hungary, Serbia is on a quest to find new markets, an in accordance with its goal, a set of commercial negotiations took place and deals were signed with Bulgaria and Turkey. A number of honorary consular offices were opened in overseas countries, the old railroad project of connecting the river Danube and the Adriatic Sea came to life again, and Serbia took part in the Balkans exhibition in London. In order to find new routes for Serbia, its political and commercial activity was getting more and more vivid. Meanwhile, the Principality of Bulgaria had territorial pretensions over a bigger part of Slavic areas under Turkish occupation, while the Serbian nation, residing in Old Serbia, especially the one residing in the eastern parts of Kosovo Vilaet and in Macedonia, was under constant pressure and terror by VMRO. The defense Chetnik activities of Serbs living in those areas, spontaneous at first, during 1906 and 1907, had unofficial support of official Serbia. During the second half of 1907 this action was suspended due to energetic pressure and opposition by the major powers. Although Serbia, carefully trying not to start an armed conflict with Bulgaria, openly claimed its historical and political rights and interests in the mentioned areas. An additional burden to this already difficult situation was the general state of anarchy in combination with the religious fanaticism of the Muslim population living in the area. Based on a choice of documents, apart from the events mentioned here, there was a noticeable continuous effort of the Serbian government to alter and to improve the position of Serbs living in Old Serbia, especially in the Kosovo Vilaet and Macedonia, who were facing constant Arnauts violence, the Bulgarian guerilla action and Turkish local officials, as well as the regular armies. In order to achieve their goal, constant appeals and protests were handed over to the Turkish authorities and to the civilian agents of the major powers, where the recognition of Serbian nationality in Turkey and the joining the Kosovo Vilaet were demanded in an international reformist action. Pursuing the improvement of the general religious and educational position of Serbs, it was demanded that a Serb national be appointed to the head position in the Velesko-Debar Archbishopric as well as the straightening of the Serbian ethnic structure in the Monastery of Hilandar on Mt. Athos.

Special parts of the book II are the Appendix 2 and the Appendix 3 Organizacija srpska odbrana 1906-1907 (Organization Serbian Defense 1906 – 1907), which contain 587 documents, which follow the organization, goals, objectives and actions of Serbian cetnik fraction, as an important segment of the Serbia’s Foreign policy directed towards the parts of Old Serbia and Macedonia in Turkey. In the Appendix 1 Organizacija srpska odbrana 1903-1905 (Organization Serbian Defense 1903 – 1905, editor Ljiljana Aleksic – Pejkovic), 450 documents are making a whole on the above organization, whose actions had significant impact on the issue of Serbian people in Old Serbia and Macedonia. For the first time, in authentic original, some not so known documents emerged into light form the Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Serbia: Top secret archives of the Executive Board of Serbian Organisation in Vranje. Materials consists of mutual correspondence between the Board of the organization and regional Boards in the smaller cities, chiefs of the so called field headquarters (gorskih stabova) at the left and right bank of the Vardar river, with the government authorities: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Consulates in Skopje and Bitola; as well as the orders for stepping into action, encrypted operational reports of the squad leaders, interrogations of vojvodas’, cetniks’ and town council persons, weapon, clothes and medicaments requirements. Serbian Defense in Turkey, or the Serbian Organisation for the Defense of the Interest of the Serbian Nation in the Old Serbia and Macedonia(Srpska organizacija za zastitu srpskih interesa u Staroj Srbiji i Macedoniji), grew spontaneously, “on the field”, as an effort of crating a resistance against Turkish and constant Arnauts violence, as well as forced “bugarisation” by the guerilla squadrons of Bulgaria and Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation (Unutrasnje makedonske revolucionarne organizacije VMRO). The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, from 1904 enters quietly and under disguise into action for defending the Serbian people and Serbian interests, led from 1903 distinguished institutions and individuals: Milorad Dodjevac, chief of city sanitary service, Serbian – Macedonian Committee (Srpsko macedonski komitet), famous painter Nadezda Petrovic and humanitarian organization “Kolo srpskih sestara”. In 1905, Organization Serbian Defense takes its final shape and put under control of a special department in Consular Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Serbia. All three Appendixes give an entire and complete picture on the actions of the Organization Serbian Defense on protecting Serbian people at the mentioned area. Appendix for 1906 – 1907 follow its work on straightening and fortifying Serbian influence in the areas populated by Serbs, in order to preserve a foundations and starting points for the separation with Bulgaria and Greece in case of the fall of Turkish Empire and future claming of the rights on these territories.

These difficulties that the young Serbian state and its diplomacy were facing, based on the documents dated from 1906 and 1907, enable more complete perception of the course of the Serbian diplomacy in the years before the Annexion Crisis as well as the Young Turks revolution. The fact remains that the diplomacy of Serbia was heading in different directions simultaneously, for example, the effort to persuade the western powers to support its national and political positions. Further examples can be seen at international conference in The Hague in 1907, while in the second half of the same year, Serbian diplomacy tried to renew commercial relations with Austro-Hungary and sign a new commercial contract. The selected documents are offering to the researchers of this period to see the whole perspective of the international-political movements in the Balkans at the beginning of 20th century in more detail. Therefore, this valuable edition will help the researchers who don’t have access to the materials from the Serbian Archives, to familiarize themselves with, or to consult in their own researches, the Serbian material depicting this extremely vivid and turbulent period in the early 20th century. Publishing the series Dokumenta o spoljnoj politici Kraljevine Srbije 1903-1914 (Documents on the Foreign Policy of the Kingdom of Serbia in the period 1903 – 1914) represents a valuable contribution for the research of the position of Serbia in international relations in the mentioned period, while enabling easier access to the documents. Apart from many scientific, methodological and organizational problems, which are imminent when working with damaged and scarce archive funds, the editors have managed to present a valuable and methodologically structured set of documents depicting the foreign policy of Serbia at the time.

Aleksandra Kolakovic

The Serbian elite was comprised of members of generation that acquired its education in European cultural centers. Upon return to the homeland, these people started taking over important positions within the state apparatus, school departments and ministries. They also formed various associations and started magazines, through which they transferred the culture of the environment in which they formed their identity. Wishing to approach European standards, they started two the most influential: Delo and Srpski književni glasnik. Founders and associates in the magazine were: Svetislav Simić, Milovan Milovanović, Bogdan Popović, Jovan Skerlić and other former European scholars who had a profound influence on the contents of the magazine as well as on the shaping of new ideological trends in the Serbian society. As advocates of Serbian politics and culture and with good selection of associates whose spiritual and intellectual grasps were in accordance with standards of modern European civilization, they introduced European spirit to the Balkans.

Conclusion

Les fondateurs et rédacteurs de Delo — Simić, Vukićević, Milovanović, Popović et Skerlić — ont exercé une influence cruciale sur le contenu de la revue et lancé, de cette manière, une modernité inconnue dans la société serbe de leur époque, imposant comportements et convictions. Ils se proposaient d’élever la culture nationale au niveau européen, et notamment français, à travers des traductions du français et le choix de collaborateurs déterminés. La revue a ainsi largement contribué à mettre en place un style dominant et simultanément initier sa progressive remise en cause par les poussées de plus en plus prononcées de l’avant-garde.
Bien que la littérature et la science fussent mises au premier plan de la revue, on n’y négligeait pas pour autant la politique. Là encore, l’opinion publique en France, l’avis des publicistes français et les publications dans la langue de Molière ont accaparé l’attention de la part de l’élite qui lisait Delo, où elle pouvait lire les extraits les plus importants de la Revue bleue, du Journal des débats et de la Revue des Deux Mondes. On voulait y trouver les solutions aux questions d’actualité. Les analyses des connaisseurs du monde balkanique comptaient, et le point de vue français domina dans la revue dans les années qui suivirent la crise de l’annexion et les guerres balkaniques. Cette influence se manifesta concrètement par le rapprochement diplomatique des deux États.
Ainsi, en agissant sur les plans politique et culturel, les intellectuels de Delo influèrent profondément la société serbe dans le sens français. Bien sûr, la France n’était pas le modèle unique proposé par la revue, et ce qui importait avant tout, c’était d’enraciner dans le lectorat la civilisation de l’Europe. Mais le fait est que, grâce à Delo, l’esprit français a su accaparer l’âme serbe et la mener à la conquête de libertés artistiques et politiques nouvelles.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the press in Serbia underwent a substantial change and began to reflect cultural trends in society. Delo, defined as a magazine for science, literature and social life, attracted a wide circle of contributors, intellectuals with different outlooks and views. Its editors and contributors, mostly educated and trained in European cultural centres, contributed to the creation of a climate conducive to the modernization of Serbian culture. This paper focuses on the role of French cultural and literary trends launched in the Delo, whose editors and contributors closely followed the leading French journals, translating and publishing the texts they deemed important for Serbia's cultural development. French literature offered guidelines and models to the realist and naturalist movements, subsequently also to modernist and avantgarde tendencies in Serbian literature. The start of the journal in 1894 is associated with the Radical Party, but the Radical ideological influence on the journal was not as strong as might be expected. Choosing science, literature and social life as the journal's areas of interest the founders and editors demonstrated their commitment to modernizing the young Serbian state and society by way of culture.

Review by Aleksandra Kolaković


Aleksandra Kolaković, "Nevena Daković (ed.), Representation of the Holocaust in the Balkans in Arts and Media", S:I.M.O.N. – Shoah: Intervention. Methods. DocumentatiON  (2016) 1,, 146–149.
ISSN 2408-9192




The Holocaust is one of the most important themes in historiography – not least for its historic relevance. Within the rich history of the Balkans, marked by wars, shifts of borders, and discontinuity, the Holocaust as a topic was, until recently, only explored by historians. But the picture of the greatest sufferings in human history is constantly changing, meaning that the Holocaust must be examined from various perspectives in order to reach an objective conclusion. The academic conference Representation of the Holocaust in the Balkans in Arts and Media, which took place from 2 to 4 October 2014 in Belgrade, investigated new modes of (re)viewing the Holocaust in arts and media. Edited by Nevena Daković, professor at the Faculty of Dramatic Arts at the University of Arts, Belgrade, the conference proceedings include 14 academic papers published on various aspects of the topic; the project was financially supported by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) and the Ministry of Culture and Information of the Republic of Serbia, and realised in partnership and cooperation with the Faculty of Dramatic Arts, the Centre for Culture and Cultural Studies in Skopje, the Belgrade Youth Centre and the Mémorial de la Shoah in Paris. As David Bathrick 1 has pointed out, visual representations of the Holocaust have proved to be an absolutely integral but also highly contested means by which to understand and remember the Nazi atrocities of the Second World War. These vehicles of memories and memorial complexes, the black-and-white photographs of the concentration and death camps, as well as the memories of traumatised survivors , are given new meanings in the contexts of arts and media. The conference attempted to map the corpus of different arts and media texts, systematise it, and use it for constructing a multidirectional memory of the Balkans' past. Special attention was paid to the role of the culture of remembrance, the institutionalisation of memory , film, and other aspects of memory and their interpretation. The focus of papers written by eminent researchers and compiled in the conference proceedings Representation of the Holocaust in the Balkans in Arts and Media is on the language of arts and media, and the aesthetic, ethical, political, philosophical and historical engagement with the Shoah. One group of papers is dedicated to representations of the Holocaust in film, radio and television in the Balkans from the Second World War to the present day (former Yugoslavia, Serbia, Bulgaria, former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia). In the article (Im)possible Witness: The Revelation of the Himmelkommando, Nevena Daković reveals how cleverly the eponymous film from 1961 moved the limits of representation.